Search Educational Peptide Research

Metabolic / Weight Management

5-Amino-1MQ is a small-molecule inhibitor of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT), not a peptide. Mouse studies report changes in body weight, adiposity, glucose-insulin measures, and liver pathology, but no directly matching human interventional efficacy study was identified in this review. Product salt form, route, purity, and compounding status materially affect interpretation.

Dermatology / Cosmetic Research

Afamelanotide is a synthetic melanocortin-1 receptor agonist with an FDA-approved controlled-release implant for adults with erythropoietic protoporphyria. Randomized trials support increased pain-free light exposure in that narrow indication. The approved implant, clinical monitoring, and manufacturing controls should not be equated with unregulated products marketed for cosmetic tanning.

Skin / wound-healing / cosmetic / repair research

AHK-Cu is a copper complex of the tripeptide alanine-histidine-lysine. Direct evidence located for the compound is limited primarily to ex vivo human hair follicles and cultured dermal papilla cells; administered-human efficacy and systemic safety trials were not verified.

Repair / Tissue Healing

ARA-290, later developed as cibinetide, is an erythropoietin-derived peptide engineered to activate tissue-protective signaling without stimulating red-blood-cell production. Several small phase 2 studies evaluated neuropathic symptoms, corneal nerve measures, metabolic endpoints, and diabetic macular edema.

Repair / Tissue Healing

BPC-157 is an experimental 15-amino-acid peptide promoted for repair and gastrointestinal uses. Published human evidence consists of two tiny uncontrolled pilots and one retrospective private-clinic report; most mechanistic support remains preclinical. FDA has identified significant product-characterization, impurity, aggregation, immunogenicity, and long-term safety uncertainties.

Hormone / Fertility

Bremelanotide is the canonical identity of PT-141 and is an FDA-approved cyclic melanocortin agonist for a narrow HSDD indication. Earlier PT-141 studies and off-label discussions must remain separated from the approved use.

Metabolic / Weight Management

Cagrilintide is a long-acting amylin analog studied for weight management, both alone and combined with semaglutide (as CagriSema). It mimics the satiety hormone amylin to reduce food intake, and has shown meaningful weight loss in completed Phase 2 and Phase 3 human trials.

GH Axis / Body Composition

CJC-1295 with DAC is a long-acting GHRH analog engineered to form a covalent conjugate with circulating albumin. Small early human studies demonstrated prolonged increases in GH and IGF-1 and preserved GH pulsatility, but no approved indication or established clinical-benefit program followed. Current evidence is largely pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, preclinical, and regulatory rather than outcome-based.

Experimental / Early Research

Cortagen is a synthetic tetrapeptide identified as Ala-Glu-Asp-Pro (AEDP), developed from research on the distinct brain-cortex extract Cortexin. Its direct evidence is preclinical, including rodent nerve-injury, ischemia, and gene-expression studies.

Sleep / Circadian

Emideltide, commonly called delta sleep-inducing peptide or DSIP, is a synthetic nonapeptide investigated in small human sleep studies during the 1980s and early 1990s. Results were mixed, and modern confirmatory development is lacking. FDA's 2026 evaluation found the evidence preliminary and inadequate to establish effectiveness for chronic insomnia, narcolepsy, or opioid withdrawal, and a July 2026 advisory committee voted against recommending emideltide for possible 503A compounding-list inclusion.

Metabolic / Weight Management

Eloralintide (LY3841136) is a long-acting, selective amylin-receptor agonist peptide developed by Eli Lilly. In a 48-week Phase 2 trial, it produced mean body-weight reductions of approximately 9% to 20% versus 0.4% with placebo in adults with obesity or overweight. Its receptor selectivity (12-fold over the calcitonin receptor) distinguishes it from dual amylin/calcitonin agonists and from Amycretin, a broader triple-receptor agonist. Eloralintide is investigational, with a Phase 3 monotherapy program underway; it is also being studied in combination with tirzepatide in separate, still-unpublished trials.

Mitochondrial / Cellular Aging

Epitalon, also spelled Epithalon, is the synthetic tetrapeptide Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly (AEDG). It is distinct from Epithalamin, a pineal-gland polypeptide extract. Most direct evidence is cell or animal research, and FDA has identified substantial safety and evidence gaps for compounded use.

Metabolic / Weight Management · Monoclonal antibody

Garetosmab is a human IgG4 monoclonal antibody developed by Regeneron Pharmaceuticals that targets Activin A. In the United States, garetosmab-grts is FDA-approved as Pasatru (approved 2026-08-19) for adults with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), where abnormal Activin A signaling through a mutant ACVR1/ALK2 receptor drives heterotopic (extra-skeletal) bone formation. Separately, garetosmab remains investigational in obesity/body-composition research, including combination studies with trevogrumab and semaglutide. It is not a peptide.

Repair / Tissue Healing

GHK-Cu is the copper(II) complex of the tripeptide GHK. Research includes cell, animal, formulation, biomaterial, and limited topical human studies. The available topical human evidence does not establish broad anti-aging, hair-growth, or wound-treatment efficacy, and it cannot support systemic injectable claims. FDA separately identifies aggregation, peptide-impurity, immunogenicity, and limited-human-data concerns for compounded injectable GHK-Cu.

GH Axis / Body Composition

GHRP-2, also called pralmorelin, is a synthetic ghrelin-receptor agonist that stimulates GH release and can also affect appetite, prolactin, ACTH, and cortisol. Japan uses pralmorelin as a diagnostic stimulus for GH deficiency, while U.S. FDA materials identify safety and product-quality concerns for compounded injectable and nasal GHRP-2. Human evidence supports endocrine and diagnostic effects, not broad wellness outcomes.

Dermatology / Cosmetic Research

Glutathione is an endogenous tripeptide made from glutamate, cysteine, and glycine. Its endogenous redox biochemistry -- peroxide handling, enzyme-linked conjugation, and recycling between reduced (GSH) and oxidized (GSSG) forms -- is extremely well established. Human evidence for exogenous (oral, topical, or intravenous) glutathione products is far more limited and route-dependent, and should not be assumed to follow from the endogenous biochemistry.

Hormone / Fertility

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone that acts similarly to luteinizing hormone at the LH/hCG receptor. FDA-approved products exist for specific fertility and endocrine uses, while fitness or testosterone-support uses are outside the scope of MitoCore’s medical guidance. On this page, hCG is presented as an established hormone medication for certain indications, with clear warnings about supervision, fertility, estrogenic effects, and misuse.

Hormone / Fertility

HMG usually refers to menotropins, a purified urinary-derived gonadotropin preparation containing FSH and LH activity. It has established fertility-medicine use, while broader or male-use claims require separate evidence and regulatory context.

GH Axis / Body Composition

Ipamorelin is a ghrelin-receptor agonist and growth-hormone secretagogue. Human research confirms that it can trigger an acute GH pulse, but the principal phase 2 clinical trial for postoperative ileus did not meet its primary efficacy endpoint. Evidence does not establish common claims involving sleep, recovery, body composition, or anti-aging, and FDA has highlighted serious safety and product-characterization concerns for compounded injectable use.

Hormone / Fertility

Kisspeptin-10 is a short active kisspeptin fragment studied as a probe and potential modulator of the human reproductive axis. Direct human administration studies are small and indication-specific.

Repair / Tissue Healing

KPV is the Lys-Pro-Val tripeptide at the C-terminus of alpha-MSH. It has been studied in intestinal cell systems and animal models of colitis and corneal injury, where researchers reported anti-inflammatory signaling and tissue-specific effects. FDA states that it has not identified human exposure data for KPV drug products, so KPV should be presented as a preclinical research peptide rather than a demonstrated human anti-inflammatory treatment.

Metabolic / Weight Management

L-Carnitine (levocarnitine) is a naturally occurring, non-peptide quaternary ammonium compound essential for shuttling long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria for beta-oxidation. It is FDA-approved as an injectable and oral drug for specific carnitine-deficiency conditions. Foundational biochemistry and human pharmacokinetic literature describe how it is absorbed, transported, and used, but the sources reviewed here do not establish weight-loss, fat-burning, or athletic-performance benefits in people who are not carnitine-deficient.

Anti-inflammatory / gut / skin research

LL-37 is the 37-amino-acid active human cathelicidin host-defense peptide. Human topical wound trials have evaluated LL-37 formulations, while mechanistic research shows antimicrobial, wound-healing, and context-dependent inflammatory activity. These topical data do not establish safety or efficacy for systemic or injectable use.

GH Axis / Body Composition

Long R3 IGF-I is an engineered analogue of insulin-like growth factor I developed largely for experimental and cell-culture applications. The audited evidence is predominantly animal and cell based; no verified controlled human administration trial was identified.

GH Axis / Body Composition

“CJC-1295 without DAC” is a marketplace label that is often equated with Modified GRF(1-29), but the naming is not consistently used in scientific and commercial sources. FDA’s 2024 review distinguished CJC-1295 free base or acetate from DAC forms and found that the available clinical references largely concerned CJC-1295 DAC. A separate evidence base for the non-DAC product as commonly sold was not established.

Mitochondrial / Cellular Aging

MOTS-C is a 16-amino-acid mitochondrial-derived peptide encoded within mitochondrial 12S rRNA, studied for metabolic-stress signaling, AMPK-related pathways, insulin sensitivity, exercise-related biology, and mitonuclear communication. It is not a component of an FDA-approved drug. FDA staff recommended against including MOTS-c free base and acetate on the 503A Bulks List over identity, effectiveness, safety, and immunogenicity concerns, but the Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee's July 2026 vote (7 yes, 5 no, 2 abstentions) favored possible inclusion — an advisory, nonbinding recommendation, not an approval or final listing decision. Most therapeutic evidence remains preclinical; it is presented here as experimental, not as a proven human therapy.

Mitochondrial / Cellular Aging

NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is an essential cellular redox coenzyme, not a peptide. It participates in cellular energy metabolism and enzyme signaling -- including sirtuins, PARPs, and CD38-related pathways -- but the clinical effects of directly injecting or infusing NAD+ remain incompletely established. Evidence that precursors such as NR or NMN raise NAD-related biomarkers does not prove that direct NAD+ injection produces the same effects or meaningful health outcomes.

Hormone / Fertility

Oxytocin is an endogenous peptide hormone and an established obstetric medicine. Strong evidence for uterotonic use should not be generalized to intranasal, behavioral, bonding, bodybuilding, or wellness claims.

Cognitive / Neuro

PE-22-28 is a seven-amino-acid fragment derived from the spadin research program and studied as a TREK-1 potassium-channel inhibitor. The evidence located is preclinical only.

Cognitive / Neuro

Pinealon is a short tripeptide commonly identified as Glu-Asp-Arg (EDR). Most direct evidence is preclinical and comes from a narrow, frequently Russian-language research lineage.

Metabolic / Weight Management

Retatrutide is an investigational GIP, GLP-1, and glucagon receptor agonist in Phase 3 development. Human trials report substantial effects on body weight and glucose control, with additional research in liver fat and obesity-related complications. It remains unapproved, and long-term cardiovascular outcomes, uncommon risks, maintenance after treatment, and real-world product quality remain unresolved.

Cognitive / Neuro

Selank is a synthetic peptide-based compound often discussed for stress response, anxiety, and neuroprotective mechanisms. It has more regional history of use than many gray-market peptides, but U.S.-style FDA-approved indications for common anxiolytic claims are lacking. This page summarizes Selank's regulatory status, small/limited human evidence, preclinical findings, and anecdotal nootropic reports.

Metabolic / Weight Management

Semaglutide is a GLP-1 receptor agonist FDA-approved under three brand names (Ozempic, Wegovy, Rybelsus) for type 2 diabetes and/or chronic weight management, with the largest published trial program of any current obesity medication.

Cognitive / Neuro

Semax is a synthetic peptide-based compound often discussed for focus, cognition, and neuroprotective mechanisms. It has more regional history of use than many gray-market peptides, but U.S.-style FDA-approved indications for common nootropic claims are lacking. This page summarizes Semax's regulatory status, small/limited human evidence, preclinical findings, and anecdotal nootropic reports.

GH Axis / Body Composition

Sermorelin is the amidated 1–29 fragment of human growth hormone–releasing hormone. Historical human studies and former U.S. approvals support its ability to stimulate pituitary growth-hormone release and, in selected pediatric growth-hormone-deficiency populations, promote growth. Evidence for modern adult wellness, anti-aging, recovery, or body-composition uses remains limited and should not be inferred from the former pediatric and diagnostic indications.

Dermatology / Cosmetic Research

SNAP-8 is the cosmetic ingredient Acetyl Octapeptide-3. Human studies identified evaluated multi-ingredient topical or microneedle formulations, not isolated SNAP-8 monotherapy, so the peptide's individual contribution cannot be determined. SNAP-8 is distinct from Acetyl Hexapeptide-8/Argireline, and neither cosmetic evidence nor mechanism proposals establish injectable, systemic, drug-like, or botulinum-toxin-equivalent effects.

Mitochondrial / Cellular Aging

Elamipretide, also known by the development codes SS-31 and MTP-131, is a mitochondria-targeting tetrapeptide that binds cardiolipin in the inner mitochondrial membrane. In September 2025, FDA granted accelerated approval to the finished product Forzinity (elamipretide) for a narrow indication: improving muscle strength in adult and pediatric patients with genetically confirmed Barth syndrome weighing at least 30 kg, based on an intermediate endpoint. This approval does not extend to broader mitochondrial, anti-aging, exercise, cardiac, renal, neurologic, or ophthalmic uses.

Metabolic / Weight Management

Survodutide is an investigational dual agonist that activates both the glucagon receptor and the GLP-1 receptor, combining GLP-1-driven appetite suppression with glucagon-driven energy expenditure. It is in Phase 3 development for obesity and type 2 diabetes, and separately for MASH (metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis) with liver fibrosis.

Repair / Tissue Healing

TB-500 is marketed as the short thymosin-beta-4 fragment LKKTETQ and is not the same molecule as full-length 43-amino-acid thymosin beta-4. FDA reports no identified human exposure data for drug products containing the exact fragment. Human studies of full-length thymosin beta-4 and RGN-259 are related biological context only and do not establish TB-500 efficacy, safety, pharmacokinetics, or dosing.

GH Axis / Body Composition

Tesamorelin is an FDA-approved growth hormone-releasing hormone analogue for reducing excess abdominal fat in adults with HIV-associated lipodystrophy. Randomized trials support reduction of visceral adipose tissue in that specific population, with additional population-specific research on liver fat. It is not indicated for general weight loss, and evidence does not establish anti-aging, bodybuilding, cognitive, athletic, or longevity benefits.

Anti-inflammatory / gut / skin research

Thymalin is described in the literature as a polypeptide extract or complex isolated from calf thymus, not a single defined peptide sequence. Cell studies and several small or observational human reports exist, but product composition, study quality, and independent replication limit confidence.

Immune / Inflammation

Thymosin alpha 1, or thymalfasin, is a defined immunomodulatory peptide studied in viral hepatitis, sepsis, pancreatitis, cancer, and other settings. Results are indication-specific and mixed.

Metabolic / Weight Management

Tirzepatide is a dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist approved as Mounjaro for type 2 diabetes and as Zepbound for chronic weight management and moderate-to-severe obstructive sleep apnea in adults with obesity. Large phase 3 programs, including SURMOUNT and SURPASS, support its approved metabolic indications.

Metabolic / Weight Management · Monoclonal antibody

Trevogrumab (REGN1033; formerly SAR391786) is an investigational fully human IgG4 monoclonal antibody developed by Regeneron Pharmaceuticals to selectively inhibit myostatin (growth differentiation factor 8, or GDF8), a protein that normally restrains skeletal-muscle growth. It is not a peptide, and it is not FDA-approved for any use. Trevogrumab has been studied in a completed Phase 2 sarcopenia trial and, more recently, in combination with semaglutide -- with or without the related antibody garetosmab -- as an investigational strategy to reduce the lean-muscle-mass loss that commonly accompanies GLP-1-driven weight loss.

Mitochondrial / Cellular Aging

Vesugen is a short synthetic tripeptide, commonly identified as Lys-Glu-Asp (KED), studied mainly in vascular cell and rodent microcirculation models. One small human report exists, but its title/abstract mismatch and limited methods require cautious interpretation.

Immune / Inflammation

VIP is a long-studied endogenous neuropeptide with broad vascular, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, neural, and immune effects. Human aviptadil trials are indication- and route-specific and have produced mixed results: a 2025 phase II trial of inhaled aviptadil in hospitalized COVID-19 pneumonia reported a borderline-shorter mean time to discharge, lower day-7 dyspnea, and greater day-28 CT improvement (mortality numerically lower but not statistically significant), while intravenous aviptadil showed no benefit in the large TESICO critical-COVID-19 trial.

Mitochondrial / Cellular Aging

Vitamin B12 is an essential water-soluble vitamin; MitoCore's ERP-supplied product (catalog #B1201) is specifically methylcobalamin, the cobalamin cofactor form used by methionine synthase to convert homocysteine to methionine, feeding the methionine/SAM methylation cycle. B12 deficiency -- from pernicious anemia, GI malabsorption, dietary inadequacy, or long-term metformin use -- can cause megaloblastic anemia and neurologic manifestations, and FDA-approved cyanocobalamin and hydroxocobalamin drug products exist for defined deficiency and cyanide-poisoning indications. Those approvals belong to different cobalamin forms and do not transfer to this methylcobalamin product, and the sources reviewed here do not support general energy, weight-loss, anti-aging, or cognitive-enhancement claims in people who are not B12-deficient.